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Dari Tabloid Otomotif , NO.26/XVII SENIN, 03 NOVEMBER 2008

Saran dari PINUX :

Jalan keluar untuk menghindari kemubaziran karena Oktan terlalu tinggi adalah

Catatan :Karakter masing-masing mesin ada perbedaan respon. Untuk masing-masing Merek,Tipe dan Model, tetapi bagi pengendara yang biasa menggunakan PINUX Fuel Additive akan dengan mudah mendapatkan/merasakan dosis campuran yang cocok untuk mesin kendaraanya, sehingga dapat mencapai penghematan yang optimal.

What is Cetane Number?

* Cetane Number is a measure of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. It is often mistaken as a measure of fuel quality. Cetane number is actually a measure of a fuel’s ignition delay. This is the time period between the start of injection and start of combustion (ignition) of the fuel. In a particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels will have shorter ignition delay periods than lower cetane fuels.
* Cetane number should not be considered alone when evaluating diesel fuel quality. API gravity, BTU content, distillation range, sulfur content, stability and flash point are also very important. In colder weather, cloud point and low temperature filter plugging point may be critical factors.

Determining Cetane Number

* The optical method for determining cetane number is ASTM test D-613. This method requires the use of an industry standard test engine equipped with accepted instrumentation and operated under specific conditions. In this test, the engine compression ratio is varied for the test sample and reference fuels of known cetane number to obtain a fixed ignition delay. The compression ratio of the sample is bracketed by those of two reference fuels. The cetane number of the sample fuel is determined by estimating between the two reference fuel points.
* Because the ASTM D-613 test is time consuming and expensive, calculated cetane index (ASTM D-976 or D-4737 is often substituted for cetane number. The calculated cetane index is derived from the fuel’s density and boiling range. While useful for estimating the cetane number of distillate fuels, this technique can not be applied to fuels containing additives that raise cetane number. These additives do not change the fuel density or distillation profile, so they do not alter the calculated cetane index.

How Does Cetane Number Affect Engine Operation?

* There is no benefit to using a higher cetane number fuel than is specified by the engine’s manufacturer. The ASTM Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oils (D-975) states, “The cetane number requirements depend on engine design, size, nature of speed and load variations, and on starting and atmospheric conditions. Increase in cetane number over values actually required does not materially improve engine performance. Accordingly, the cetane number specified should be as low as possible to insure maximum fuel availability.” This quote underscores the importance of matching engine cetane requirements with fuel cetane number.
* Diesel fuels with cetane number lower than minimum engine requirements can cause rough engine operation. They are more difficult to start, especially in cold weather or at high altitudes. They accelerate lube oil sludge formation. Many low cetane fuels increase engine deposits resulting in more smoke, increased exhaust emissions and greater engine wear.
* Using fuels which meet engine operating requirements will improve cold starting, reduce smoke during start-up, improve fuel economy, reduce exhaust emissions, improve engine durability and reduce noise and vibration. These engine fuel requirements are published in the operating manual for each specific engine or vehicle.
* Overall fuel quality and performance depend on the ratio of parafinic and aromatic hydrocarbons, the presence of sulfur, water, bacteria, and other contaminants, and the fuel’s resistance to oxidation. The most important measures of fuel quality include API gravity, heat value (BTU content), distillation range and viscosity. Cleanliness and corrosion resistance are also important. For use in cold weather, cloud point and low temperature filter plugging point must receive serious consideration. Cetane number does not measure any of these characteristics.

Cetane Improvers / Ignition Accelerators

* Diesel fuels are blends of distillate fuels and cracked petroleum hydrocarbons. The cracked hydrocarbons are low cetane compounds, largely due to their aromatic content. To meet the cetane number demands of most diesel engines, cetane improvers must be added to these blends. The lower cetane cracked compounds are less responsive to these cetane improvers than the higher cetane paraffinic fuels.
* Cetane improvers modify combustion in the engine. They encourage early and uniform ignition of the fuel. They discourage premature combustion and excessive rate of pressure increase in the combustion cycle. Depending on the amount of high versus low cetane components in the base fuel, typical alkyl nitrate additive treatments can increase cetane by about 3 to 5 numbers (1:1000 ratio). With high natural cetane premium base fuels (containing a high percentage of parafins) and a 1:500 treatment ratio, cetane may increase up to a maximum of about 7 numbers.
* Most cetane improvers contain alkyl nitrates which break down readily to provide additional oxygen for better combustion. They also break down and oxidize fuel in storage. This generates organic particulates, water, and sludge - all of which degrade fuel quality. The result is often a fuel which no longer meets even minimum requirements. Because of these drawbacks, nitrate cetane improvers are not used in Fuel Magic.
* Fuel MagicTM is blended to improve oxidation stability while providing a cetane number increase of 2 to 3 numbers. (See NIPER cetane tests on PDF.) Fuel Magic improves combustion while reducing oxidation and particulate formation, increasing storage stability, and enhancing fuel quality.

Do Cetane Improving Additives Really Improve Fuel Quality?

* Fuel quality is defined by the physical property specifications given in the ASTM Standard Specification for Diesel Fuel Oils, ASTM D-975. Carbon residue, ash and sulfur increase engine wear and deposit formation. Premium diesel fuels should have lower specifications for these properties. Additionally, premium diesel fuels should be more stable in storage than standard fuels, so the premium fuel quality you purchase won’t degrade over time. This is the area where nitrate-containing cetane improvers cause problems. Fuel Magic contains no alkyl nitrates.

Specifying Diesel Fuel

* Cetane number is an important measure of ignition quality, or cold-starting ability. API gravity is an excellent indicator of heat value, which translates into fuel economy and power. The distillation curve reflects the molecular weight distribution, with higher boiling fractions providing better lubrication, higher cetane - and more deposits. Sulfur content is directly related to corrosion; this needs to be as low as possible. Oxidation stability, water, and sediment content affect the storage life of the oil. For winter use, low cloud point and low temperature filter plugging point are critical to uninterrupted operation. To insure the best quality fuel for your diesel engines, follow the engine manufacturer’s specifications for all these characteristics.

The octane rating is a measure of the autoignition resistance of gasoline and other fuels used in spark-ignition internal combustion engines. It is a measure of anti-detonation of a gasoline or fuel.

Octane number is the number which gives the percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane and normal heptane, that would have the same anti-knocking capacity as the fuel which is under consideration. For example, gasoline with the same knocking characteristics as a mixture of 90% iso-octane and 10% heptane would have an octane rating of 90.

Definition of octane rating

The octane rating of a spark ignition engine fuel is the knock resistance (anti-knock rating) compared to a mixture of iso-octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane, an isomer of octane) and n-heptane. By definition, iso-octane is assigned an octane rating of 100 and heptane is assigned an octane rating of zero. An 87-octane gasoline, for example, possesses the same anti-knock rating of a mixture of 87% (by volume) iso-octane and 13% (by volume) n-heptane. This does not mean, however, that the gasoline actually contains these hydrocarbons in these proportions. It simply means that it has the same autoignition resistance as the described mixture.

A high tendency to autoignite, or low octane rating, is undesirable in a spark ignition engine but desirable in a diesel engine. The standard for the combustion quality of diesel fuel is the cetane number. A diesel fuel with a high cetane number has a high tendency to autoignite, as is preferred.

It should be noted that octane rating does not relate to the energy content of the fuel (see heating value), nor the speed at which the flame initiated by the spark plug propagates across the cylinder. It is only a measure of the fuel’s resistance to autoignition. It is for this reason that one highly branched form, or isomer, of octane (2,2,4-trimethylpentane) has (by definition) an octane rating of 100, whereas n-octane (see octane), which has a linear arrangement of the 8 carbon atoms, has an octane rating of -10, even though the two fuels have exactly the same chemical formula and virtually identical heating values and flame speeds.

Measurement methods

The most common type of octane rating worldwide is the Research Octane Number (RON). RON is determined by running the fuel in a test engine with a variable compression ratio under controlled conditions, and comparing these results with those for mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane.

There is another type of octane rating, called Motor Octane Number (MON) or the aviation lean octane rating, which is a better measure of how the fuel behaves when under load. MON testing uses a similar test engine to that used in RON testing, but with a preheated fuel mixture, a higher engine speed, and variable ignition timing to further stress the fuel’s knock resistance. Depending on the composition of the fuel, the MON of a modern gasoline will be about 8 to 10 points lower than the RON. Normally fuel specifications require both a minimum RON and a minimum MON.

In most countries (including all of Europe and Australia) the “headline” octane that would be shown on the pump is the RON, but in the United States, Canada and some other countries the headline number is the average of the RON and the MON, sometimes called the Anti-Knock Index (AKI), Road Octane Number (RdON), Pump Octane Number (PON), or (R+M)/2. Because of the 8 to 10 point difference noted above, this means that the octane in the United States will be about 4 to 5 points lower than the same fuel elsewhere: 87 octane fuel, the “regular” gasoline in the US and Canada, would be 91-92 in Europe. However most European pumps deliver 95 (RON) as “regular”, equivalent to 90-91 US (R+M)/2, and even deliver 98 (RON) or 100 (RON).

The octane rating may also be a “trade name”, with the actual figure being higher than the nominal rating.

It is possible for a fuel to have a RON greater than 100, because iso-octane is not the most knock-resistant substance available. Racing fuels, straight ethanol, AvGas and liquified petroleum gas (LPG) typically have octane ratings of 110 or significantly higher - ethanol’s RON is 129 (MON 102, AKI 116) reference. Typical “octane booster” additives include tetra-ethyl lead, MTBE and toluene. Tetra-ethyl lead is easily decomposed to its component radicals, which react with the radicals from the fuel and oxygen that would start the combustion, thereby delaying ignition. This is why leaded gasoline has a higher octane rating than unleaded.

Effects of octane rating

Higher octane ratings correlate to higher activation energies. Activation energy is the amount of energy necessary to start a chemical reaction. Since higher octane fuels have higher activation energies, it is less likely that a given compression will cause knocking. (Note that it is the absolute pressure (compression) in the combustion chamber which is important — not the compression ratio. The compression ratio only governs the maximum compression that can be achieved).

Octane rating has no direct impact on the deflagration (burn) of the air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. Other properties of gasoline and engine design account for the manner at which deflagration takes place. In other words, the flame speed of a normally ignited mixture is not directly connected to octane rating. Deflagration is the type of combustion that constitutes the normal burn. Detonation is a different type of combustion and this is to be avoided in spark ignited gasoline engines. Octane rating is a measure of detonation resistance, not deflagration characteristics.

It might seem odd that fuels with higher octane ratings explode less easily and are therefore more powerful. One simple explanation for the effect is that various fuels can provide different heat (therefore energy) at different compression levels. As the compression level increases on many fuels so does the heat (energy) per unit of measure of fuel. Fuels burned in normal sea level pressure produce less energy than ones burned at the point of pre-ignition. The best energy pressure (compression ratio) for a fuel is at the point of where the engine “pings”. Each fuel with its own resistance to pre-ignition requires its own ideal compression ratio. This is not always what emission levels require however. A motor must be constructed to work within a fuels compression ratio and emission levels.

Another simple explanation is that carbon-carbon bonds contain more energy than carbon-hydrogen bonds. Hence a fuel with a greater number of carbon bonds will carry more energy regardless of the octane rating. A premium motor fuel will often be formulated to have both higher octane as well as more energy. A counter example to this rule is that ethanol blend fuels have a higher octane rating, but carry a lower energy content by volume (per litre or per gallon). This is because ethanol is a partially oxidized hydrocarbon which can be seen by noting the presence of oxygen in the chemical formula: C₂H₅OH. Note the substitution of the OH hydroxyl group for a H hydrogen which transforms the gas ethane (C₂H₆) into ethanol. To a certain extent a fuel with a higher carbon ratio will be more dense than a fuel with a lower carbon ratio. Thus it is possible to formulate high octane fuels that carry less energy per liter than lower octane fuels. This is certainly true of ethanol blend fuels (gasohol), however fuels with no ethanol and indeed no oxygen are also possible.

Alcohol fuels such as methanol and ethanol, are partially oxidized fuels and need to be run at much richer mixtures than gasoline. As a consequence, the total volume of fuel burned per cycle counterbalances the lower energy per unit volume, and the net energy released per cycle is higher. If gasoline is run at its preferred maximum power air/fuel mixture of 12.5:1, it will release approximately 20 MJ (about 19,000 BTU) of energy, where ethanol run at its preferred maximum power mixture of 6.5:1 will liberate approximately 25.7 MJ (24,400 BTU), and methanol at a 4.5:1 AFR liberates about 29.1 MJ (27,650 BTU).To account for these differences, a measure called the fuel’s specific energy is sometimes used. It is defined as the energy released per air/fuel ratio.

Using a fuel with a higher octane lets an engine run at a higher compression ratio without having problems with knock. Actual compression in the combustion chamber is determined by the compression ratio as well as the amount of air restriction in the intake manifold (manifold vacuum) as well as the barometric pressure, which is a function of elevation and weather conditions.

Compression is directly related to power (see engine tuning), so engines that require higher octane usually deliver more power. Engine power is a function of the fuel as well as the engine design and is related to octane ratings of the fuel. Power is limited by the maximum amount of fuel-air mixture that can be forced into the combustion chamber. At partial load, only a small fraction of the total available power is produced because the manifold is operating at pressures far below atmospheric. In this case, the octane requirement is far lower than what is available. It is only when the throttle is opened fully and the manifold pressure increases to atmospheric (or higher in the case of supercharged or turbocharged engines) that the full octane requirement is achieved.

Many high-performance engines are designed to operate with a high maximum compression and thus need a high quality (high energy) fuel usually associated with high octane numbers and thus demand high-octane premium gasoline. Ethanol with an octane of 116 could be a high performance fuel if engines were designed with a 14 to 1 compression ratio, possibly improving the mileage to compete with gasoline. The Offenhauser engine had a 15 to 1 ratio and burned methanol. The power output of an engine depends on the energy content of its fuel, and this bears no simple relationship to the octane rating. A common understanding that may apply in only limited circumstances amongst petrol consumers is that adding a higher octane fuel to a vehicle’s engine will increase its performance and/or lessen its fuel consumption; this may be false under most conditions — while engines perform best when using fuel with the octane rating for which they were designed and any increase in performance by using a fuel with a different octane rating is minimal or even imaginary, unless there are carbon hotspots, fuel injector clogging or other conditions that may cause a lean situation that can cause knocking that are more common in high mileage vehicles, which would cause modern cars to retard timing thus leading to a loss of both responsiveness and fuel economy. This also does not apply to turbocharged vehicles, which may be allowed to run greater advance in certain circumstances due to external temperatures.

Using high octane fuel for an engine makes a difference when the engine is producing its maximum power or when under a high load such as climbing a large hill or carrying excessive weight. This will occur when the intake manifold has no air restriction and is running at minimum vacuum. Depending on the engine design, this particular circumstance can be anywhere along the RPM range, but is usually easy to pinpoint if you can examine a printout of the power output (torque values) of an engine. On a typical high-revving motorcycle engine, for example, the maximum power occurs at a point where the movements of the intake and exhaust valves are timed in such a way to maximize the compression loading of the cylinder; although the piston is already rising at the time the intake valve closes, the forward speed of the charge coming into the cylinder is high enough to continue to load the air-fuel mixture in.

When this occurs, if a fuel with below recommended octane is used, the engine will knock. Modern engines have anti-knock provisions built into the control systems and this is usually achieved by dynamically de-tuning the engine while under load by increasing the fuel-air mixture and retarding the spark. Here is a link to a white paper that gives an example: [4]. In this example, the engine maximum power is reduced by about 4% with a fuel switch from 93 to 91 octane (11 hp, from 291 to 280 hp). If the engine is being run below maximum load, the difference in octane will have even less effect. The example cited does not indicate at what elevation the test is being conducted or what the barometric pressure is. For each 1000 feet of altitude the atmospheric pressure will drop by a little less than 11 kPa/km (1 inHg). An engine that might require 93 octane at sea level may perform at maximum on a fuel rated at 91 octane if the elevation is over, say, 1000 feet. See also the APC article.

The octane rating was developed by chemist Russell Marker at the Ethyl Corporation c1926. The selection of n-heptane as the zero point of the scale was due to the availability of very high purity n-heptane, not mixed with other isomers of heptane or octane, distilled from the resin of the Jeffrey Pine. Other sources of heptane produced from crude oil contain a mixture of different isomers with greatly differing ratings, which would not give a precise zero point.

Regional variations

Octane ratings can vary greatly from region to region. For example, the minimum octane rating available in much of the United States is 87 AKI and the highest is 93. However this does not mean that the gas is different.

In the Rocky Mountain (high altitude) states, 85 octane is the minimum octane and 91 is the maximum octane available in fuel. The reason for this is that in higher-altitude areas, a typical combustion engine draws in less air per cycle due to the reduced density of the atmosphere. This directly translates to reduced absolute compression in the cylinder, therefore deterring knock. It is safe to fill up a car with a carburetor that normally takes 87 AKI fuel at sea level with 85 AKI fuel in the mountains, but at sea level the fuel may cause damage to the engine. A disadvantage to this strategy is that most turbocharged vehicles are unable to produce full power, even when using the “premium” 91 AKI fuel. In some east coast states, up to 94 AKI is available [5]. In parts of the Midwest (primarily Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois and Missouri) ethanol based E-85 fuel with 105 AKI is available [6].

California fuel stations will offer 87, 89, and 91 octane fuels, and at some stations, 100 or higher octane, sold as racing fuel. Until Summer 2001, 92 octane was offered in lieu of 91.

Generally, octane ratings are higher in Europe than they are in North America and most other parts of the world. This is especially true when comparing the lowest available octane level in each country. In many parts of Europe, 95 RON (90-91 AKI) is the minimum available standard, with 97/98 being higher specification (being called Super Unleaded). In Germany, big suppliers like Shell or Aral offer 100 octane gasoline (Shell V-Power, Aral Ultimate) at almost every gas station. In Australia, “regular” unleaded fuel is RON 91, “premium” unleaded with RON 95 is widely available, and RON 98 fuel is also reasonably common. Shell sells RON 100 petrol from a small number of service stations, most of which are located in capital cities. In Malaysia, the “regular” unleaded fuel is RON92, “premium” fuel is rated at RON97 and Shell’s V-Power at RON99. In other countries “regular” unleaded gasoline, when available, is sometimes as low as 85 RON (still with the more regular fuel - 95 - and premium around 98 available). In Russia and CIS countries 80 RON (76 MON) is the minimum available and the standard.

It should be noted that this higher rating seen in Europe is an artifact of a different underlying measuring procedure. In most countries (including all of Europe and Australia) the “headline” octane that would be shown on the pump is the RON, but in the United States, Canada and some other countries the headline number is the average of the RON and the MON, sometimes called the Anti-Knock Index (AKI), Road Octane Number (RdON), Pump Octane Number (PON), or (R+M)/2. Because of the 8 to 10 point difference noted above, this means that the octane in the United States will be about 4 to 5 points lower than the same fuel elsewhere: 87 octane fuel, the “regular” gasoline in the US and Canada, would be 91-92 in Europe. However most European pumps deliver 95 (RON) as “regular”, equivalent to 90-91 US (R+M)/2, and deliver 98 (RON), 99 or 100 (RON) labeled as Super Unleaded.

In the United Kingdom, ‘regular’ petrol has an octane rating of 95 RON, with 97 RON fuel being widely available. Tesco and Shell both offer 99 RON fuel. BP is currently trialling the public selling of the super-high octane petrol BP Ultimate Unleaded 102, which as the name suggests, has an octane rating of RON 102. Although BP Ultimate Unleaded (with an octane rating of RON 97) and BP Ultimate Diesel are both widely available throughout the UK, BP Ultimate Unleaded 102 is (as of October 2007) only available throughout the UK in 10 filling stations.

From: Wikipedia

If you’ve read How Car Engines Work, you know that almost all cars use four-stroke gasoline engines. One of the strokes is the compression stroke, where the engine compresses a cylinder-full of air and gas into a much smaller volume before igniting it with a spark plug. The amount of compression is called the compression ratio of the engine. A typical engine might have a compression ratio of 8-to-1.

Ed Endicott/Dreamstime.com During World War I, it was discovered that adding a chemical called tetraethyl lead (TEL) to gasoline significantly improved the gasoline’s octane rating.

The octane rating of gasoline tells you how much the fuel can be compressed before it spontaneously ignites. When gas ignites by compression rather than because of the spark from the spark plug, it causes knocking in the engine. Knocking can damage an engine, so it is not something you want to have happening. Lower-octane gas (like “regular” 87-octane gasoline) can handle the least amount of compression before igniting.

The compression ratio of your engine determines the octane rating of the gas you must use in the car. One way to increase the horsepower of an engine of a given displacement is to increase its compression ratio. So a “high-performance engine” has a higher compression ratio and requires higher-octane fuel. The advantage of a high compression ratio is that it gives your engine a higher horsepower rating for a given engine weight — that is what makes the engine “high performance.” The disadvantage is that the gasoline for your engine costs more.

The name “octane” comes from the following fact: When you take crude oil and “crack” it in a refinery, you end up getting hydrocarbon chains of different lengths. These different chain lengths can then be separated from each other and blended to form different fuels. For example, you may have heard of methane, propane and butane. All three of them are hydrocarbons. Methane has just a single carbon atom. Propane has three carbon atoms chained together. Butane has four carbon atoms chained together. Pentane has five, hexane has six, heptane has seven and octane has eight carbons chained together.

It turns out that heptane handles compression very poorly. Compress it just a little and it ignites spontaneously. Octane handles compression very well — you can compress it a lot and nothing happens. Eighty-seven-octane gasoline is gasoline that contains 87-percent octane and 13-percent heptane (or some other combination of fuels that has the same performance of the 87/13 combination of octane/heptane). It spontaneously ignites at a given compression level, and can only be used in engines that do not exceed that compression ratio.

During WWI, it was discovered that you can add a chemical called tetraethyl lead (TEL) to gasoline and significantly improve its octane rating above the octane/heptane combination. Cheaper grades of gasoline could be made usable by adding TEL. This led to the widespread use of “ethyl” or “leaded” gasoline. Unfortunately, the side effects of adding lead to gasoline are:

• Lead clogs a catalytic converter and renders it inoperable within minutes.
• The Earth became covered in a thin layer of lead, and lead is toxic to many living things (including humans).

When lead was banned, gasoline got more expensive because refineries could not boost the octane ratings of cheaper grades any more. Airplanes are still allowed to use leaded gasoline (known as AvGas), and octane ratings of 100 or more are commonly used in super-high-performance piston airplane engines. In the case of AvGas, 100 is the gasoline’s performance rating, not the percentage of actual octane in the gas. The addition of TEL boosts the compression level of the gasoline — it doesn’t add more octane.

Currently engineers are trying to develop airplane engines that can use unleaded gasoline. Jet engines burn kerosene, by the way.

From : How Stuff Works